Learning Disabilities Essay Example for Free

Learning Disabilities Essay Puzzling is the term teachers use to describe students with learning disabilities.   They tell us that these students look entirely normal, seem intelligent, carry on intelligent conversations – that they don’t appear to any different than other students. Yet these students have difficulty doing certain tasks – not all- in school.   Some have difficulty reading; others perform poorly in spelling; still others make frequent mistakes in math.   Teachers in many schools tell us that these students are very hard to teach – that they simply do not learn in the same ways or as easily as others their age.    They tell us that these students have special needs and are not easy to teach in large classes in which most other students perform reasonably well.   They tell us that modifying instruction so that these students can profit from teaching is an intricate process. Because of the heterogeneous nature of this group of children, the concept of specific learning disabilities has been hard to define or describe in few sentence or by a numerical score such as an IQ or by a decibel loss. Furthermore, because the field has been of interest to educators, psychologists, psychiatrists, neurophysiologists, pediatricians, ophthalmologists, optometrists, speech pathologists, and others, the problem has been viewed in each of those disciplines from different perspectives. Hence there is really the need for several definitions for learning disabilities and thus we can conclude that its definition is defined in â€Å"case to case† basis. Definition of Learning Disabilities Historically, the following terms were used to name children with Learning disabilities: ââ€"   perceptually handicapped ââ€"   brain injured ââ€"   neurologically impaired Then, there came two broad aspects of concern in defining and or identifying those children: biological etiology- â€Å"minimal brain dysfunction†, psychoneurological learning disorders. behavior – â€Å" developmental disparity in psychological processes†, developmental imbalance† The definition of learning disabilities in an educational term has derived its heritage from: ââ€"   neurology ââ€"   psychology ââ€"   speech pathology ââ€"   ophthalmology ââ€"  Ã‚   remedial reading      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wiederholt (1984) has traced the history of Learning disability and has delineated three dimensions of disorders namely: (1) disorders of the spoken language studied primarily by neurologists and ophthalmologists such as; ââ€"   Samuel Kirk developed a test, the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, for use in describing language functioning and developing remedial programs. disorders of written language represented mostly by psychologists, speech pathologists, and educators such as; ââ€"   Grace Fernald established a clinic at UCLA where she perfected remedial reading and spelling techniques. disorders of perceptual and motor behaviors studied mostly by a number of disciplines such as; ââ€"   Goldstein, Werner and Strauss as pioneers of the field which listed the following behavioral characteristics that differentiated between those with and those without brain injuries: excessive motor activity, hyperactivity, awkwardness and consistently poor motor performance, erratic behavior, poor organization, high distractibility and faulty perceptions (like reversals) and ââ€"   Samuel Orton was a neurologist who believed that lack of cerebral dominance was a cause of language disorders. (In normal individual either the left or right side of the brain has dominance in controlling specific functions.) ââ€"  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cruickshank focused his efforts on the study of brain-injured children, specifically children with cerebral palsy. ââ€"   Getman, Marianne Frostig, Newell Kephart, and Ray Barsch focused on the correlation of perceptual disorders and developed remedial procedures ranging from optometric eye exercises, tracing and copying patterns, and differentiating figure from background in a puzzle, to making angels in the snow.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Today, there are various provinces in Canada that have established programs for learning disabilities which was instituted for example by ââ€"   The Ontario Ministry of Education ââ€"   Saskatchewan Department of Education ââ€"   Halifax Board of Education and ââ€"   Quebec Ministry of Education But the most widely used definitions is the one incorporated by the Learning Disabilities Association of Canada or LDAC (2002) which state that, the term â€Å"Learning Disabilities refer to a number of disorders which may affect the acquisition, organization, retention, understanding or use of verbal or nonverbal information. These disorders affect learning in individuals who otherwise demonstrate at least average abilities essential for thinking and/or reasoning. As such, learning disabilities are distinct from global intellectual deficiency. Learning disabilities result from impairments in one or more processes related to perceiving, thinking, remembering or learning. These include, but are not limited to: language processing; phonological processing; visual spatial processing; processing speed; memory and attention; and executive functions (e.g. planning and decision-making)†. Further, LDAC mentioned that learning disabilities range in severity and may interfere with the acquisition and use of one or more of the following: oral language (e.g. listening, speaking, understanding); reading (e.g. decoding, phonetic knowledge, word recognition, comprehension); written language (e.g. spelling and written expression); and mathematics (e.g. computation, problem solving). Further, the U.S. Department of Education regulation further states that a student has a specific learning disability if: the student does not achieve at the proper age and ability levels in one or more of several specific areas when provided with appropriate learning experiences; the student has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in one or more of these seven areas: (a) oral expression, (b) listening comprehension, (c) written expression, (d) basic reading skill, (e) reading comprehension, (f) mathematics calculation, and (g) mathematics reasoning. To summarize, all these definitions of learning disabilities, it includes the following major concepts: The individual has a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes.   Ã‚  Ã‚   (These processes refer to intrinsic prerequisite abilities, such as memory, auditory   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   perception, visual perception, oral language, and thinking.) The individual has difficulty in learning, specifically, in speaking, listening, writing, reading (word-recognition skills and comprehension), and mathematics (calculation and reasoning.) The problem is not primarily due to other causes, such as visual or hearing impairments; motor handicaps; mental retardation; emotional disturbance; or economic, environmental, or cultural disadvantage. A severe discrepancy exists between the student’s apparent potential for learning and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   his or her low level of achievement.   In other words, there is evidence of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   underachievement.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The various definitions of learning disabilities have several elements in common: neurological dysfunction uneven growth pattern difficulty in academic and learning tasks discrepancy between potential and achievement exclusion of other causes Identification of Learning Disabilities In identifying individuals with learning disabilities, the following common characteristics must be observed: ââ€"   Disorders of attention: Hyperactivity, distractibility, poor concentration ability, short attention span; ââ€"   Poor motor abilities: Poor fine and gross motor coordination, general awkwardness and clumsiness, spatial problems; ââ€"   Perceptual and information processing problems: Difficulty in discrimination of auditory and visual stimuli, auditory and visual closure, and sequencing; ââ€"   Oral language difficulties: Problems in listening, speaking, vocabulary, and linguistic competencies; ââ€"   Failure to develop and mobilize cognitive strategies for learning: Lack of organization, active learning set, metacognitive functions; ââ€"   Reading difficulties: Problems in decoding, basic reading skills, and reading comprehension; ââ€"   Written language difficulties: Problems in spelling, handwriting, and written composition; ââ€"   Mathematics difficulties: Difficulty in quantitative thinking, arithmetic, time, space, and calculation facts; and ââ€"   Inappropriate social behavior: Problems in social skills deficits, emotional problems, and establishing social relationships. There are also other practical classification schemes that are useful: (1) the academic learning disabilities ( reading, arithmetic, handwriting, spelling, and written expression) (2) the developmental learning disabilities: ( attention, memory, perceptual skills, thinking skills, and oral language skills) A somewhat more systematic way to look at characteristics of students with learning disabilities is to look at those factors referenced in screening devices.   The following outline reflects the types of difficulties often observed in learning disabled students: (1) significantly different classroom behaviors difficulty in beginning or finishing tasks difficulty in organizing inconsistent in behavior difficulty in peer relationships (2) significantly below-average performance in auditory comprehension and listening difficulty in following directions difficulty in comprehending or following class discussions inability to retain information received aurally difficulty in understanding or comprehending word meanings (3) significantly below-average performance in spoken language use of incomplete sentences or unusual number of grammatical errors use of immature or improper vocabulary or very limited vocabulary difficulty in recalling words for use in self-expression difficulty relating isolated facts, scattered ideas difficulty in relating ideas in logical sequence (4) significant academic problems difficulty in reading fluency difficulty in associating numbers with symbols incorrect ordering of letters in spelling confusion of manuscript and cursive writing avoidance of reading confusion of math concepts – addition, multiplication (5) orientation difficulties poor time concept, no grasp of meaning of time difficulty in â€Å"navigating† around building or school grounds poor understanding of relationships (big, little, far, close, under, on, near) inability to learn directions (north, south, left, right) motor disabilities or significant underdevelopment for age poor coordination very poor balance awkward, poorly developed manipulative or manual dexterity lack of rhythm in movements III. Intervention for Learning Disabilities. This knowledge of the characteristics of learning disabled students is one basis for intervention. Thus, we have seen that children with learning disabilities compose quite a diverse group.   It should be no surprise then to find that the teaching and strategies approaches designed to help those children are also quite a diverse. But it is possible to cluster the various approaches into three broad educational strategies: task training, in which the emphasis is on the sequencing and simplication of the task to be learned. ââ€"   Ysseldyke and Salvia (1984) have advanced tow theoretical models namely: (a) analyzing the child’s abilities and disabilities and (b) analyzing the task and the direct training of the terminal behavior or task. This view is supported by behavioral analysts who advocate (1) finding out what the child can and cannot do in a particular skill, (2) determining whether or not the child has the behaviors needed to succeed in the task, (3) defining the goals in observable terms, and (4) organizing a systemic remedial program using reinforcement techniques. The applied behavior analysts do not infer processes or abilities that underlie difficulties but rely solely on the child’s interactional history and the current behavior and environmental situation.   They feel that their approach, which is task oriented and observable, is the most parsimonious approach, and to some it is the only approach needed. ability or process training, in which the focus is on the remediation and simplification of the task to be learned. Quay (1983) discussed the relative efficacy of ability or process training.   He stated that three approaches to remediation have evolved: (1) remediating a disability so that learning will be facilitated at a later date, (2) training and ability or process for its own sake, and (3) direct training of the task.   He concludes that the direct instruction method (task training) should be tried first and then discarded in favor of other methods if direct instruction is not successful. ability – or process-task training, in which the first two approaches are combined and integrated into one remedial program. Raschke and Young (1986) support this approach.   They compared the behavior – analysis model with the diagnostic-prescriptive model. They state that neither approach alone has the answer and propose what they call a dialectic-teaching approach into one system. Essentially the model assesses the abilities and disabilities of the children (intraindividual diffences), makes task analyses of the skills to be learned, and prescribes remediation in the functions and skills to be developed. This dialectic system they maintain â€Å"permits the teacher to assess, program, instruct, and evaluate the child’s psycholinguistic characteristics in the same system as his skill competencies and consequential variables†. Hence, the task of developing a definition of learning disabilities proved to be a formidable challenge.   Indeed, defining this population is considered such an overwhelming task that some have likened learning disabilities to Justice Potter Stewart’s comment on pornography: impossible to define, â€Å"but I know it when I see it.† Thus, defining learning disabilities in a way acceptable to all has continued as a debatable issue since the inception of the field.   Although a number of definitions have been generated and used over the years, each has been judged by some to have some shortcomings.  Ã‚   There are many types of disabilities, each of which may require a unique diagnosis and a unique remedial method. POSITION PAPER   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The definitions of learning disabilities are numerous and so varied that it is difficult to present taxonomy or even a specific list of these different definitions.   The definition of learning disabilities is a problem in much of the nations throughout the world. This problem first came out when some parents in the United States became concerned because their children who were not learning in school were rejected from special education since they were not mentally retarded, deaf or blind, or otherwise handicapped.   Their children were called by various names such as; neurologically handicapped, brain-injured, aphasodic, dyslexic, and perceptually handicapped. In spite of its current widespread use, the term learning disability is vulnerable to misunderstanding and misuse. The condition is difficult to define operationally since the designation learning disability is an umbrella term for a variety of deviations that are not included in traditional categories of exceptional children. Also it has been confused with general learning problems that are common to some degree in most children. In addition, it has been misused to include educational retardation, which is found in slow learning children and in children who have not learned because of poor teaching or absence from school. Another vulnerability of the term comes from the difficulty in drawing an explicit line between normal and abnormal.   Some allowances must be made for biological and psychological diversity, and considerable variation in abilities is accepted as normal. So, the question now is, â€Å"If there are objections to the term learning disabilities, why use it?   Why not use some other term? Well and good, if a better term can be found.   Other terms are either too specific or too broad.   Dyslexia for example, only refers to severe reading disability and it is not the only learning disability.   Brain injury has little or no educational relevance.   Perceptual handicaps exclude children with language disorders. Hence, the label learning disability has evolved to encompass the heterogeneous group of children not fitting neatly into the traditional categories of handicapped children. And that, substantial number of children show retardation in learning to talk, do not acquire other communication skill, do not develop normal visual or auditory perception, or great difficulty in learning to read, to spell, to write, or to make arithmetic calculations. Some of them even, are not receptive to language but are not deaf, some are not able to perceive visually but are not blind, and some cannot learn by ordinary of method of instruction but are not mentally retarded. Although such children are from a heterogeneous group and fail to learn for diverse reasons, they have one thing in common: they do not perform as well in school as they could. Discussing the problem and the difficulties of names for these children, Kirk (1963) explained that sometimes classification labels block our thinking. He further stated that it is better to state that a child has not learned to read than to say the child is dyslexic. So he advised that the name should be functional.   He suggested further that since the parents were interested in service to their children, it might be preferable to use a term related to teaching or learning and that the term learning disability might be preferable over the currently used terms such as cerebral function and brain injured. The term learning disabilities were agreed by these parents and they consider it more appropriate since it implied teaching and learning and since they were interested primarily in service for their children. So, one of the major problems of definition is that a learning disability is not as obvious or homogenous as blindness or deafness. There are many types of disabilities, each of which may require a unique diagnosis and a remedial method may vary differently from another condition also termed a learning disability. It is no wonder that many students, teachers, and parents have become confused about the term learning disability and the characteristics of children so labeled. This confusion appears to be international and is illustrated by the remarks of a teacher who, in testifying to a government committee studying the subject (Learning Difficulties in Children and Adults, 1986), stated:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I find myself asking the following questions:   What does the term â€Å"learning difficulty† mean?   Does the term â€Å"learning difficulty† mean the same as â€Å"learning disability†? How about the term â€Å"dysfunction†? What does the term â€Å"minimal brain dysfunction† mean? Do they all mean the same? Certainly, all these labels are not necessary, or are they? Does labeling a child with learning problems create more problems? It all becomes a bit confusing†¦The terminology changes often, varies from state to state and from country to country. Out of these definitions, came my own definition of learning disability: Learning disability describes a result rather than the cause of the learning disability.   Therefore, the conditions we call a learning disability is defined in terms of the student’s difficulties – what he can and cannot do in school – and focuses primarily on the academic performance.   So, one cannot be labeled as learning disabled if he has not yet started formal schooling as the label learning disabled indicates that a student is having unusual learning difficulties and involves speculations to possible causes, but it specifically indicates that the primary cause cannot be a condition such as mental retardation, hearing or visual impairment, and so on. Learning disabilities should be identified in the formal school context. Thus, preschoolers should not be labeled as learning disabled as growth rates are so unpredictable at young age,   In addition, very young children who appear to have problems may be identified under a noncategorical label, such as developmentally delayed.   For many children, learning disabilities first become apparent when they enter school and fail to acquire academic skills.   The failure often occurs in reading, but also happens in mathematics, writing, or other school subjects.   Among the behaviors frequently seen in the early elementary years are inability to attend and concentrate; poor motor skills, as evidenced in the awkward handling of a pencil and in poor writing; and difficulty in learning to read.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the later elementary years, as the curriculum becomes more difficult, problems may emerge in other areas, such as social studies or science.   Emotional problems also become more of an impediment after several years of repeated failure, and students become more conscious of their poor achievement in comparison with that of their peers.   For some students, social problems and inability to make and keep friends increase in importance at this age level. A radical change in schooling occurs at the secondary level, and adolescents find that learning disabilities begin to take a greater toll.   The tougher demands of the junior and senior high school curriculum and teachers, the turmoil of adolescence, and the continued academic failure may combine to intensify the learning disability.   Adolescents are also concerned about life after completing school.   They may need counseling and guidance for college, career, and vocational decisions.   To worsen the situation, a few adolescents find themselves drawn into acts of juvenile delinquency.   Because adolescents tend to be overly sensitive, some emotional, social, and self-concept problems often accompany a learning disability at his age.   Most secondary schools now have programs for adolescents with learning disabilities. Many teachers in Canada suggested that we abolish the label learning disability, and merge it with the emotionally disturbed and the educable mentally retarded and only deal with the child from an instructional point of view by defining learning tasks so that they can be taught step by step.   I strongly opposed with this suggestion.   Though maybe it is possible for the child with severe learning disability, but this approach is not sufficient to mild learning disabilities students. This is one of the greatest sources of controversy about the identification issues. The question of how much academic and learning retardation is evidenced before an individual should be identified as learning disabled.   Aside from identifying children with learning disability, it is very important to judge the extent of a child’s learning disability as either mild or severe.   Determining the level of severity is helpful in placement and in planning teaching delivery.   I strongly suggest that students with mild learning disabilities should be given different remediation from those of students who have severe learning disabilities. At this point, it is very crucial to differentiate the two cases.   Mild learning disabilities describe the problems of many students.   Students with mild learning disabilities usually have a disability in just one or two areas of learning, and although they need supportive help and special teaching, they can probably get along – at least for part of the day – in the regular classroom. So, within the regular classroom, the regular teachers should often make changes in instruction that will benefit these students. On the other hand, students with sever learning disabilities pose a very different problem and they require quite different educational services.   These students are likely to lag significantly in several areas of learning and to have concomitant social, emotional, or behavioral problems.   They need the environment of a special classroom, should contact mainly with one teacher, and should be given special services for most of the day.   Because of the intensity of their problems, the special class should be given fewer students than the regular classroom.   I suggest the 1:3 teacher to student ratio is the best to maximize and hasten the remediation process.   However, students with severe learning disabilities can gradually be mainstreamed for special subjects or activities or placed in the resource room, or even back in the regular classroom as their progress permits.   Because of these definitions; teachers, guidance councilors, and other school personnel, play the biggest role in identifying, diagnosing, remediating or treating this kind of disability within the school context.   So any teaching/service delivery should best meet the requirements needed to serve properly learning disabled students within the regular classroom.   Hence, learning disabled students should be treated or given remediation within the given school context with the greatest help of the regular classroom teacher but the guidance of the learning disabilities specialist.   So, it is implied that each school should have a learning disabilities specialist. With this, a change in the administrative arrangements for the placement for instruction of children with learning disabilities is a must.  Ã‚   It is important to take note that in the past, the rapid growth of special education was in the direction of removing atypical children from the mainstream of regular classroom and placing them into special education programs. Even the regular education supported this movement which maybe because the responsibility of educating children with a variety of learning problems is transferred to the domain of special education, and that would really lighten the work load of regular teachers.  Ã‚   But that should not be the case and I do not support that movement. The trend should be reversed and all students with learning disabilities should be brought back into the regular classroom with the regular students and in the hands of the regular teacher with the help of the learning disabilities specialist.     Ã‚  A number of movements and researches support this claim. The influential movement that supports this claim is the REI or the regular education initiative led by Madeline Will, the director of special education in the U.S. Office of Special Education in 1986.   She stated that this initiative is designed to promote collaborative efforts among regular and special educators and â€Å"shared responsibility† (Will, 1986).   In this initiative, regular and special educators were encouraged to pool their talents and coordinate their efforts in planning and teaching.  Ã‚   I greatly support this initiative as the underlying premise of this concept is that student’s learning disabilities can be more successfully taught in the regular education classroom than in special education classes or resource room. By promoting the merging of special and regular education, the regular education initiative reflects a major change in the way students with learning disabilities are identified, assessed, and educated. The approach is supported by many special educators (Lloyd, Singh, Repp, 1991; Maheady Algozzine, 1991; Biklen Zollers, 1986; Greer, 1988; Reynolds, Wang Walberg, 1997).     Ã‚  A specific example is, more than fifty years ago, Samuel Kirk, in his presidential address to special educators, emphasized that all teachers (regular and special educators) have the responsibility for teaching learning disabled children.   Kirk implored that â€Å"every teacher †¦ is a teacher of learning disabled children† (Kirk, 1941).   He further wrote the following: Actually the education of exceptional children is not wholly the responsibility of any one group of teachers †¦. It is hoped that in the future all special class teachers will not only be responsible for the education of children in their classroom, but will take on the added responsibility of contributing their knowledge and special skill to the regular classroom teacher †¦ who (has0 many learning disabled children in (the) classroom. (Kirk, 1941) In 1968, Lloyd Dunn wrote an influential article about the benefits of having special educators work with regular teachers in serving learning disabled children (Dunn, 1968). Another view to change the administrative arrangement in special education is to group children with different disabilities together for instruction.   This categorical system in special education historically evolved as the field of special education developed.   Each category of disability (such as visual impairment, hearing impairment, mental retardation, orthopedic disabilities, speech disorders, emotional disturbance, and learning disabilities) became established individually over the years when there was sufficient interest in that particular area of exceptionality.   This concept emphasizes the common characteristics among students with disabilities and the common instructional methods for teaching students with various disabilities.   In this system, students with learning disabilities, behavior disorders, and mental retardation are often grouped together. Some parents and special educators are concerned that children with learning disabilities might be lost in the shuffle of this kind of placement, if such classes become a dumping ground for students with a variety of unrelated problems.   The resulting diversity of learning and behavior problems would impede teachers in helping students with learning disabilities. But this view is also opposed by a number of authors and has even provoked unusual levels of confusion, emotion, and debate within the special education community (Jehkins Pious, 2001).   Moreover, other special educators and parents, express concern regarding the regular education initiative movement and caution that more study is needed before making full-scale and far-reaching changes in procedures and policies that will affect the lives of students with learning disabilities (Lloyd et al., 1991; Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1988; Cannon, 1988; Kaufman, Gerber, Semmel, 1998; McKinney Hocutt, 1988, Lerner, 1997). But these opposing views have no substance and should be disregarded altogether.   Fuchs Fuchs (2000) have conducted research on the perceptions of and attitudes toward the regular education initiative among both regular and special educators.   These studies suggest that neither regular nor special education teachers are dissatisfied with the current special education delivery system.   In fact, the teachers favored the resource room model over the consultant model.   Many of the teachers saw no improvement in the achievement levels for either special or regular education students as a result of the regular education initiative reforms.   The success of the initiative depends on the support of regular and special teachers (Semmel, Abernathy, Butera, Lesar, 1991; Coates, 1989).   Moreover, the research prove that merely shifting the responsibility from the resource room teacher to the regular or a consultant is not enough to ensure the success of the reform. Hence, major policy changes in regular education profoundly affect students with learning disabilities.   Several recent national study commissions on the poor quality of schools serving the learning disabled students.   It is my fear that, most school’s pursuit for academic excellence standards will left behind students with learning disabilities – or they will be the losers.   Being unable to meet the educational standards set by the pursuit-of-excellence movement, some students with learning disabilities will be denied a high school diploma and thus be denied the opportunity to complete their schooling.   Further, if regular teachers are held accountable for the academic excellence of their students, they will be reluctant to accept the responsibility for hard-to-teach students.   Some special educators predict that the push for excellence may serve to widen the schism between regular and special education (Pugach Sapon-Shevin, 1997). Hence, it is my challenge to educators and healthcare professionals to undergo another education reform movement where school curriculum requirements for the learning disabled should be added to the current curriculum standards for the regular students. So in this recommendation for curriculum changes, a greater consideration should be given for the learning disabled students.   But this should be within the context of the regular education curriculum. This approach is same with the integration of regular and special education.   Some special educators also are now urging that the integration process should be taken much further – that the current special education system should be drastically restructured and that regular and special education should be merged into a single system (Kauffman Trent, 1991).   Such educators cite several reasons for changing the current system.   Special education, they maintain, is not effective when it occurs outside of the regular classroom.   In addition, the physical separation of students with disabilities is demeaning and degrades instruction.   These special educators maintain that integrated special education is more effective than separate programs. So the delivery options for teaching students with learning disabilities should also include regular classes and resource room classes.   This approach is concomitant to the observation that successful adults with disabilities have learned to function comfortably in society as it exists – an unrestricted environment composed of all people.   To promote experiences in the greater society, it must be ensured that, to the extent appropriate, students with disabilities should have experiences in school with regular (or non-special education) students. Since society includes the family, parents too should not be forgotten as an important element in the entire complex.   Parents are a vital component in the student’s education. These parents of children with learning disabilities need help in accepting their situation.   Mental health professionals should help make parents be aware that the problem must be faced both by the child and by other members of the family.   In addition to an honest acceptance of the disability, there must be recognition that improvement is often a slow process. So any approach concerning children with learning disability should establish healthy parental attitudes and ensure parent-teacher cooperation is of course, very necessary.   Parent support groups and family counseling are effective in assisting parents understand their children and their problems and in finding ways to help their children within the home.   In addition, parent-teacher conference can become a bridge between the home and school and can involve parents in the educational process. Learning disabilities is now at a crossroads, as it seems to have been throughout its thirty-year history.   Many innovative ideas are only in their beginning stages and will develop more fully in the years to come. The approach I suggested as discussed in this paper is one of those ideas.   It is very important for this approach that more students with learning disabilities are served through regular education.   In addition, there should be more collaboration between special and regular educators.   A consequence of all of these shifts is that the responsibilities of learning disabilities teachers will change to meet the new demands. References Bush, W., and Giles, M.(1979).   Aids to Psycholinguistic Teaching. Columbus,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ohio: Charles E. Merrill. Clements, S. (1986). Minimal Brain Dysfunction in Children.   Public Health   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Service Publications. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Washington, D.C. Dunn, L.M. nad Smith J.O. (1987). Peabody Language Development Kits. Levels   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   P, I.II.III. Circle Pines, Minn.: American Guidance Service. Fernald, G.M. and Keller, H. (1971), â€Å"The Effect of Kinesthetic Factors in the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Development of Word Recognition in the Case of Non –Readers.† Journal of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Educational Research 4:355-357. Getman, G.H. (1985). â€Å"The Visuo-Motor Complex in the Acquisition of Learning   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Skills.† Learning Disorders, Volume 1. Seattle: Special Child Publications Gellingham,A. and Stillman B. (1986). Remedial Training for Children with   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Specific Disability in Reading, Spelling, and Penmanship, 5th ed. Cambridge,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mass: Educators Publishing Service. Hegge,T., Kirk,S. and Kirk, W.(1986). Remedial Reading Drills.   Ann Arbor,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mich.: Geroge Wahr. Hirsch,E. (1983). â€Å"Training of Visualizing Ability by the Kinesthetic Method of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Teaching Reading.† Unpublished master’s thesis. University of Illinois. Karnes,M., Zehrbach, R. and Teska, J. (1984). â€Å"The Karnes Preschool Program;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Rational Curricular Offerings and Follow up Data.   Report on Longitudinal   Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Evaluations of Preschool Programs, vol. 1: 95-108. Kirk, S.A. (1963).   â€Å"Behavioral Diagnosis and Remediation of Learning   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Disabilities.† In Proceedings of the Conference on Exploration into the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Problems of the Perceptually Handicapped Child.   Chicago: Perceptually   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Handicapped Children. Kirk, S.A. and Elkins, J. (1985) â€Å"Characteristics of Children Enrolled in the Child   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Service Demonstration Centers.†Ã‚   Journal of Learning Disabilities 8: 630-637. Learning Difficulties in Children and Adults. (1986). Report of the House of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Representatives Select Committee on Specific Learning Difficulties. Lombardi, T.P., and Lombardi, E.J. (1987).   ITPA: Clinical Interpretation and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Remediation. Seattle: Special Child Publication. Minskoff, E.D., Wiseman, and Minskoff J. (1985). The MWM Program for   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Developing Language Abilities. Ridgefield, N.J.: Educational Performance   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Associates. Orton, S.J. (1978). â€Å"Specific Reading Disability – Strphosymbolia.† Journal of the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   American Medical Association 90:1095-1099. Spalding, R.B.AND Spalding W.T. (1987). The Writing Road to Reading.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Morrow: New York. Strauss, A.A. and Lehtinen. (1987). Psychopathology and Education of the Brain-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Injured Child, vol. II. New York: Grune and Stratton. Weiderholt, J.L (1984).†Historical Perspectives on the Education of the Learning   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Disabled.† In L. Mann and D.A. Sabitino, eds. The Third Review of Special   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Education.  Ã‚   Philadelphia: JSE Press.

The Lure of Evil in Shakespeares Macbeth Essay -- Literary Analysis

Everyone knows that evil can be devastating, especially to someone who foolishly embraces it. Most people would wonder why anyone would embrace evil. The answer is simple though; sometimes, evil does not appear as what it really is. Often, it actually appears enchanting, showing you the alluring side while hiding the darker side. The Tragedy of Macbeth, by William Shakespeare (1564-1616), is an ideal example of people falling victim to evil. In fact, the entire downfall of the main characters, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, is due to them being lured to evil by three witches. The play is a perfect illustration of how evil can lure someone in then lead to their downfall. In the play, Macbeth started out as an extremely brave and loyal solider. However, after the three witches told him he was to be king one day, he changed completely, being wholly consumed by his greed. He turned his back on his friends, betrayed them, and murdered innocent people. All of this can be linked back to the predictions made by the witches. The witches first come to Macbeth after a battle and call him thane of Glamis (which he already is), thane of Cawdor, and King (Macbeth 1.3. 48-50). Shortly after this, while Macbeth is still trying to understand what they were talking about, he is informed that he is now thane of Cawdor, just as the witches said. This is the beginning of his downward spiral into evil. The more Macbeth thinks about the witches calling him king, the more the idea interests him. Soon, all he can think about is becoming king. He is so tempted by their prophecy that he determines he must murder the king. Since the king is staying with him this is easily done. Lady Macbeth, eager to become queen, comes up with a plan to kill King Dun... ...973-1988. Boston: G. K. Hall & Company, 1990. Plath, Sylvia. The Collected Poems. Ed. Ted Hughes. New York: Harper & Row, 1981. Plath, Sylvia. The Journals of Sylvia Plath. Ed. Ted Hughes and Frances McCullough. New York: Ballantine Books, 1982. Pollitt, Katha. "A Note of Triumph [The Collected Poems]". Critical Essays on Sylvia Plath. Ed. Linda W. Wagner. Boston: G. K. Hall & Company, 1984. 67 - 72. Rosenthal, Lucy. Modern American Literature: A Library of Literary Criticism. Ed. Elaine Fialka Kramer, Maurice Kramer, and Dorothy Nyren. Rev. ed. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1976. Wagner, Linda W., ed. Critical Essays on Sylvia Plath. Boston: G. K. Hall & Company, 1984. Wagner-Martin, Linda. The Oxford Companion to Women's Writing in the United States. Ed. Cathy N. Davidson and Linda Wagner-Martin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.

3 Is the Answer

A Christmas Memory Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. Comprehension The questions below refer to the selection â€Å"A Christmas Memory. † ____1. Buddy and his friend keep their money — a. |at Mr. Haha Jones’s house|c. |buried in the pecan orchard| b. |in the local bank’s Christmas club|d. |under a floorboard beneath the bed| ____2. Buddy and his friend give fruitcakes to everyone except — a. |the relatives they live with|c. |people who visit them only once| b. |a bus driver|d. |President Roosevelt| ____3.Which of the following statements best describes Buddy’s friend? a. |Fashion is her passion. |c. |Big cities fascinate her. | b. |She has strong feelings about God. |d. |She spends a lot of time at the movies. | ____4. Buddy compares his friend to a bantam hen because she is — a. |always poking her â€Å"beak† into things|c. |small and sprightly| b. |not very intellige nt|d. |as flighty as a bird| ____5. When it comes to his other relatives, Buddy — a. |barely acknowledges their existence| b. |feels very close to them| c. |is jealous of the attention they pay to his cousin| d. feels that they offer him a lot of support| ____6. Which adjective best applies to Buddy’s friend? a. |unstable|c. |elegant| b. |generous|d. |cruel| ____7. Which of the following items is not an activity that binds the two friends together? a. |Flying kites|c. |Making decorations| b. |Traveling|d. |Drinking whiskey| ____8. Toward the end of the story, Buddy is separated from his friend. Why? a. |He runs away from home. | b. |His friend is sent to the hospital to suffer her last illness. | c. |A letter from President Roosevelt invites Buddy’s friend to the White House. | d. Buddy is sent to military school by his relatives. | ____9. Which sentence tells you that Buddy’s friend has died? a. |â€Å"A morning arrives . . . when she cannot rouse herse lf to exclaim: ‘Oh my, it’s fruitcake weather! ’†| b. |â€Å"The other Buddy died in the 1880s, when she was still a child. †| c. |â€Å"I wrapped her in a Fine Linen sheet and rode her in the buggy down to Simpson’s pasture where she can be with all her Bones. †| d. |â€Å"I’ll wager at the very end a body realizes the Lord has already shown Himself. †| ____10. Which image from the story appeals to the sense of smell? a. â€Å"sweet, oily, ivory meat mounts in the milk-glass bowl. †| b. |â€Å"A straw cartwheel corsaged with velvet roses out-of-doors has faded. . . .†| c. |â€Å"a hateful heap of bitter-odored pennies. †| d. |â€Å"words tumbling together into a wrathful tune. . . .†| Literary Focus The questions below refer to the selection â€Å"A Christmas Memory. † ____11. Which custom is a major part of the setting and mood of â€Å"A Christmas Memory†? a. |Kissing under the mistletoe|c. |Making and giving gifts| b. |Listening for Santa Claus’s sleigh|d. |Inviting friends to a Christmas party| ____12. What is the difference between tone and mood? . |They are synonyms; there is no real difference. | b. |Tone expresses how an author feels; mood is how an author makes the reader feel. | c. |Tone appeals to the sense of hearing; mood appeals to the sense of sight. | d. |Mood can be created through setting, but tone cannot. | ____13. How are flapjacks and hominy grits part of the setting of â€Å"A Christmas Memory†? a. |They show the traits and attitudes of the two main characters. | b. |The fact that they are described makes them part of the setting. | c. |They help show the customs of characters in a certain time and place. d. |The images of these foods are so detailed, a reader can almost taste them. | ____14. All of the following places are part of the setting of â€Å"A Christmas Memory† except a(n)  Ã¢â‚¬â€ a. |forest|c. |attic | b. |riverside cafe|d. |church| Completion Complete each statement. Vocabulary Development On the line provided, write the word that best completes each sentence. inaugurating|dilapidated|paraphernalia|sacrilegious|carnage| prosaic|disposition|exhilarates|suffuse|noncommittal| 15. The smells of baking and the freshly cut trees ____________________ the old kitchen. 16.Buddy’s friend has a strong faith and never says anything ____________________. 17. Buddy’s friend might be considered ____________________ by some people, but he thinks she is the most special person on earth. 18. The ____________________ baby buggy serves them well. 19. Killing flies to earn money results in a ____________________ of bugs. Short Answer Constructed Response 20. Choose a favorite passage from â€Å"A Christmas Memory. † On a separate sheet of paper, identify its setting, and state what you think the mood of the passage is. Referring to specific images, explain how the setting helps create that mood.A Christmas Memory Answer Section MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. ANS:DPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 1 (plot) 2. ANS:APTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 1 (plot) 3. ANS:BPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 4. 1 (characterization) 4. ANS:CPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 7. 7 (figurative language) 5. ANS:APTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 4. 2 (character interactions) 6. ANS:BPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 4. 1 (characterization) 7. ANS:BPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 4. 2 (character interactions) 8. ANS:DPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 1 (plot) 9. ANS:APTS:1OBJ:9. 2. 1. 11 (making inferences) 10. ANS:CPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 7. 8 (imagery) 11. ANS:CPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 3 (setting and mood/atmosphere) 12. ANS:BPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 3 (setting and mood/atmosphere) | 9. . 7. 19 (tone) 13. ANS:CPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 3 (setting and mood/atmosphere) 14. ANS:DPTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 3 (setting and mood/atmosphere) COMPLETION 15. ANS:suffuse PTS:1OBJ:9. 3. 3 (context clues) 16. ANS:sacrilegious PTS:1OBJ:9. 3. 3 (context clues) 17. ANS:prosaic PTS:1OBJ:9. 3. 3 (context clues) 18. ANS:dilapidated PTS:1OBJ:9. 3. 3 (context clues) 19. ANS:carnage PTS:1OBJ:9. 3. 3 (c ontext clues) SHORT ANSWER 20. ANS: Students’ responses will vary. A sample response follows: A favorite passage of mine is the one in which Buddy and his friend shell pecans for their fruitcakes.It’s set in the kitchen on a November morning after the characters have gathered the nuts in the woods. To me the mood is one of finding joy in the midst of a cold, lonely place. Other people don’t seem to be around, but the kitchen is warmed by the fire and filled with the characters’ joy and friendship. There’s a contrast between light and dark in this paragraph—the rising moon and the fire on one hand, the growing darkness of the night on the other—that seems to me to show the delicate balance between happiness and loneliness in the characters.The image of the characters’ reflections in a dark mirror, mingling with the rising moon, sum that up for me. In that dark mirror there’s a hint of another mood—the bittersweet m ood of the adult Buddy looking nostalgically back at his childhood and a few precious moments, fully aware that as the events of the story seeded the rich emotional life that sustained him as a boy, so those same moments, the empty shells of his memories, now feed the transforming fire that makes him a writer. PTS:1OBJ:9. 1. 3 (setting and mood/atmosphere) | 9. 1. 7. 8 (imagery)

How I Spent Active And Be Outdoors - 1308 Words

Since I was a young boy, I’ve always loved to stay active and be outdoors. I used to go to the park almost every day and play with my friends. I enjoyed playing all types of sports, especially basketball and soccer, and still do today. I joined several sports leagues throughout my life as well. I played 3 years of soccer, and 5 years of basketball. Even though it was only club sports, I still played every game like it was my last, and always pushed myself to improve my abilities. Sadly, many of the physical activities I participated in throughout my life came to an end, when I injured myself. This is an injury that makes me extremely sad whenever I think about it, because I cannot accomplish things like I used to, and the fact that my†¦show more content†¦It swelled up right away, and the pain was unbearable. I walked home, struggling on the whole way, and was really worried how my mother will react. When I told her she was furious, but at the same time, felt really b ad because she knows how much I dedicate myself to the sport. She told me to stop playing basketball for the next 3 months and also cut my gym membership. It was one of the worst nights of my life. Basketball tryouts were 2 weeks away, and I knew I wouldn’t be able to tryout. I tried healing my ankle the fastest way possible, but the process was still too slow. I put ice on it everyday and rested as much as I could. I was barely able to walk in the beginning, and even missed a few days of school. Once I could walk, it didn’t hurt too badly, but I still couldn’t play basketball. I was really disappointed, but I knew not to give up. I set a positive mindset for myself and hoped to be healthy for tryouts next year. Once my ankle healed, I went back to my routine, and played basketball almost every day. I wore an ankle brace, so it protected my ankle from getting sprained again. My brace restricted a lot of movement and it was not the same, but I had to wear it for my own good. It had been a long twelve months since I sprained my ankle. It was junior year and tryouts were approaching. I started practicing everyday and my ankle felt great again. I still wore an ankle brace out of my fear of getting injured again, and especially when tryouts

Essay about Making Advertisements Memorable to the Viewer

According to CBS news, approximately, 600 to 625 advertisements are exposed to one person in a day and about 272 of those are coming from the television, the radio, magazines, and newspapers. Even if a person is exposed to so many advertisements each day, person may actually notice less than 80 of them. The goal of advertisement is to convince customers to buy their products. So if the customers do not remember the ad after viewing it, the company just wastes their time and money. In order to be effective, an advertisement has to be memorable for the customers. So there are many creative elements in advertisements and I want to analyze about those elements in this paper. The advertisement that I choose is Kia Optima Alien ad. This†¦show more content†¦This visual effect shows beauty of the car and raise purchasing desire. The target customer for this commercial is young middle class people and newly married couple. So this ad more focuses on curiosity and mystique by those s ettings that I mentioned earlier. In this advertisement, I also could find elements of masculinity that come from Tannen’s book You Just Don’t Understand. Before I start to discuss about masculinity elements, let me introduce author Deborah Tannen and her book You Just Don’t Understand. Deborah Tannen is a professor of linguistics at Georgetown University, and have published 22 books, half of them for scholarly audiences and half for general audiences. Three books have been New York Times best sellers and one of those three, You Just Don’t Understand, was on the New York Times best seller list for almost 4 years. She is expert at the verbal interaction between men and women. In this book You Just Don’t Understand, she analyzed what men and women seek from conversations: independence and intimacy. So this book will allow reader to have better understanding of different gender and how to communicate well with them. According to chapter one â€Å"Dif ferent Words, Different Worlds† on page 24 and 25, Tannen describes that males try to achieve and maintain the upper hand if they can. They also struggle to preserve independence and avoid failure. Females are also concernedShow MoreRelatedState Farm Advertising Analysis1060 Words   |  5 Pagesbreathing. Whether we’re driving, listening to the radio, or watching T.V we are constantly being bombarded by thousands of companies telling us why we should buy their products or services. Some advertisements prove to be effective, while others can be easily dismissed. One very popular industry in advertisement is auto insurance. Every year companies like Geico, State Farm, and All State invest millions of dollars, hoping to convince audiences that their service is better than their competitors. BecauseRead MoreThe Importance of Television1632 Words   |  7 Pagesentertainment. 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Above that, it said, â€Å"We wish you a scary Halloween!† Coca-Cola fired back, posting the same advertisement but changed the wording, stating, â€Å"Everybody wants to be a hero!† The advertisement(s) bring together the uses of logos, ethos, and pathos. With theRead MoreRhetorical Essay: Old Spice1070 Words   |  5 Pagescomical tone for the advertisement and draws the viewers’ interest. The relatively new company, Old Spice, foun ded in 1990 uses their new commercial series to promote their American brand of male grooming products. Old Spice in the past has focused on targeting middle aged to elderly men in their advertisement campaigns. This new series of advertisements is trying to reach to a new target audience of twenty to forty year old males. This advertisement is attempting to create a memorable impression to theRead MoreA Commercial Airing Then At The Super Bowl869 Words   |  4 Pagestelevision ratings service. 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Police Culture Essay - 943 Words

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Western Australia police is one of the eight authorities in Australia and is primary responsible for handling the world’s biggest single jurisdiction wrapping an area of 2.5 million square kilometres with two regions, fourteen boroughs and one hundred fifty eight police posts. (WA POLICE 2014) However, in a report last 2010 by Trever Paddenbburg of the Sunday Times, one out of ten western Australian officers

Working Capital Managment Free Essays

Management Of Working Capital Introduction Working Capital-Definition Working Capital is the cash needed to pay for the day to day operation of the business. Along with long term investments , business also needs funds for short-term purposes to finance current operations. Investment in short term assets like cash, inventories, debtors etc. We will write a custom essay sample on Working Capital Managment or any similar topic only for you Order Now , is called ‘Short-term Funds’ or ‘Working Capital’. Hence, the management of Working Capital is very important for the smooth running of business. Calcution of Working Capital Working Capital of a company is the difference between the Current Assets and the Current Liabilities of the company. Working capital=Current Assets-Current Liabilities Current Assets: Assets of the business held in the form of cash(e. g cash at the bank) or that can be quickly turned into cash. Current Assests Stocks Cash Debtors Investments Current Liabilities: Money owed by a business organization which is to be paid within next 12 months Current Liabilities Trade Creditors Dividends Taxation Short term loans Circulating capital – working capital is also known as circulating capital or current capital. ’ â€Å"The use of the term circulating capital instead of working capital indicates that its flow is circular in nature. † Structure of Working Capital The different elements or components of current assets and current liabilities constitute the structure of working capital which can be illustrated in the shape of a chart as follows: Working Capital Cycle makes it clear that the amount of cash is obtained mainly from issue of shares, borrowing and operations. Cash funds are used to purchase fixed assets, raw materials and used to pay to creditors. The raw materials are processed; wages and overhead expenses are paid which in result produce finished goods for sale. Working Capital circulation is like the blood circulation in the human body as once it stops the whole business becomes lifeless. Classification of Working Capital Working Capital can be classified in various ways. Conceptual classification – There are two concept of working capital viz. , quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative concept takes into account as the current assets while the qualitative concept takes into account the excess of current assets over current liabilities. Deficit of working capital exists where the amount of current liabilities exceeds the amount of current assets. The above can be summarized as follows: (i) Gross Working Capital = Total Current Assets (ii) Net Working Capital = Excess of Current Assets over Current Liabilities (iii) Working Capital Deficit = Excess of Current Liabilities over Current Assets. Classification on the basis of financial reports – The nformation of working capital can be collected from Balance Sheet or Profit and Loss Account; as such the working capital may be classified as follows: (i) Cash Working Capital– This is calculated from the information contained in profit and loss account. This concept of working capital has assumed a great significance in recent years as it shows the adequacy of cash flow in business. It is base d on ‘Operating Cycle Concept’s (ii) Balance Sheet Working Capital– The data for Balance Sheet Working Capital is collected from the balance sheet. On this basis the Working Capital can also be divided in three more types, viz. gross Working Capital, net Working Capital and Working Capital deficit. Classification on the Basis of Variability – Gross Working Capital can be divided in two categories viz. ,(i) permanent or fixed working capital, and (ii) Temporary, Seasonal or variable working capital. Such type of classification is very important for hedging decisions. (i) Temporary Working Capital – Temporary Working Capital is also called as fluctuating or seasonal working capital. This represents additional investment needed during prosperity An favorable seasons. It increases with the growth of the business. Temporary working capital is the additional assets required to meet the variations in sales above the permanent level. † This can be cal culated as follows: Temporary Working Capital = Total Current Assets – permanent Current Assets (ii) Permanent Working Capital – It is a part of total current assets which is not changed due to variation in sales. There is always a minimum level of cash, inventories, and accounts receivables which is always maintained in the business even if sales are reduced to a minimum. Amount of such investment is called as permanent working capital. Permanent Working Capital is the amount of working capital that persists over time regardless of fluctuations in sales. † This is also called as regular working capital. Importance of Working Capital Management For smooth running an enterprise, adequate amount of working capital is very essential. Efficiency in this area can help, to utilize fixed assets gainfully, to assure the firm’s long- term success and to achieve the overall goal of maximization of the shareholders, fund. Shortage or bad management of cash may result in loss of cash discount and loss of reputation due to non-payment of obligation on due dates. Insufficient inventories may be the main cause of production held up and it may compel the enterprises to purchase raw materials at unfavorable rates. Like-wise facility of credit sale is also very essential for sales promotions. It is rightly observed that â€Å"many a times business failure takes place due to lack of working capital. Adequate working capital provides a cushion for bad days, a concern can pass its period of depression without much difficulty. The significance of adequate working capital is â€Å"to avoid interruption in the production schedule and maintain sales, a concern equires funds to finance inventories and receivables. † The adequacy of cash and current assets together with their efficient handling virtually determines the survival or demise of a concern. An enterprise should maintain adequate working capital for its smooth functioning. Both, excessive working capital and inadequate working capital will impair the profitability and general health of a concern. The danger of excessive working capital are as follows: Heavy investment in fixed assets –A concern may invest heavily in its fixed assets which is not justified by actual sales. This may create situation of over capitalization. Reckless purchase of materials- Inventory is purchased recklessly which results in dormant slow moving and obsolete inventory. At the same time it may increase the cost due to mishandling, waste, theft, etc. Speculative tendencies – Speculative tendencies may increase and if profit is increased dividend distribution will also increase. This will hamper the image of a concern in future when speculative loss may start. Liberal credit – Due to liberal credit, size of accounts receivables will also increase. Liberal credit facility can increase bad debts and wrong practices will start, regarding delay in payments. Carelessness – Excessive working capital will lead to carelessness about costs which will adversely affect the profitability. Paucity of working capitalist also bad and has the following dangers: 1. Implementation of operating plans becomes difficult and a concern may not achieve its profit target. 2. It is difficult to pay dividend due to lack of funds. 3. Bargaining capacity is reduced in credit purchases and cash discount could not be availed. 4. An enterprise looses its reputation when it becomes difficult even to meet day-to- day commitments. 5. Operating inefficiencies may creep in when a concern cannot meet it financial promises. 6. Stagnates growth as the funds are not available for new projects. 7. A concern will have to borrow funds at an exorbitant rate of interest in case of need. 8. Sometimes, a concern may be bound to sale its product at a very reduced rates to collect funds which may harm its image. Meaning of Working Capital Management The management of current assets, current liabilities and inter-relationship between them is termed as working capital management. Working capital management is concerned with problems that arise in attempting to manage the current assets, the current liabilities and the inter-relationship that exist between them. † In practice, â€Å"There is usually a distinction made between the investment decisions concerning current assets and the financing of working capital. † F rom the above, the following two aspects of working capital management emerges: (1) To determine the magnitude of current assets or â€Å"level of working capital† and (2) To determine the mode of financing or â€Å"hedging decisions. Significance of Working Capital Management Funds are needed in every business for carrying on day-to-day operations. Working capital funds are regarded as the life blood of a business firm. A firm can exist and survive without making profit but cannot survive without working capital funds. If a firm is not earning profit it may be termed as ‘sick’, but, not having working capital may cause its bankruptcy working capital in order to survive. The alternatives are not pleasant. Bankruptcy is one alternative. Being acquired on unfavorable term as another. Thus, each firm must decide how to balance the amount of working capital it holds, against the risk of failure. † Working capital has acquired a great significance and sound position in the recent past for the twin objects of profitability and liquidity. In period of rising capital costs and scare funds, the working capital is one of the most important areas requiring management review. It is rightly observed that, â€Å"Constant management review is required to maintain appropriate levels in the various working capital accounts. † Mainly the success of a concern depends upon proper management of working capital so â€Å"working capital management has been looked upon as the driving seat of financial manager. † It consumes a great deal of time to increase profitability as well as to maintain proper liquidity at minimum risk. There are many aspects of working capital management which make it an important function of the finance manager. In fact we need to know when to look for working capital funds, how to use them and how measure, plan and control them. A study of working capital management is very important for internal and external experts. Sales expansion, dividend declaration, plants expansion, new product line, increase in salaries and wages ,rising price level, etc. , put added strain on working capital maintenance. Failure of any enterprise is undoubtedly due to poor management and absence of management skill. Importance of working capital management stems from two reasons, viz. , (i) A substantial portion of total investment is invested in current assets, and (ii) level of current assets and current liabilities will change quickly with the variation in sales. Though fixed assets investment and long-term borrowing will also response to the changes in sales, but its response will be weak. Conclusion Although some companies began the process of improving their working capital management five or even 10 years ago, many others were driven to focus on the issues by funding disruptions and cash shortages brought by the global crisis. The effects of the many challenges faced by large companies during that period are evident today in both operational practices and strategic priorities. How to cite Working Capital Managment, Papers